At Wise Rootz, we believe it is important that information about cacao, botanicals, functional mushrooms, psilocybin and microdosing is carefully supported by evidence.
For our educational content, we consult peer-reviewed scientific literature, including systematic reviews, meta-analyses, randomised controlled trials and, where relevant, mechanistic and preclinical research. We also use official sources from organisations including the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Medicines Agency (EMA), European Commission and Netherlands Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (NVWA).
Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving. We therefore review and update our source library whenever new and relevant evidence becomes available.
On the interpretation of research
The fact that an ingredient or substance has been scientifically studied does not automatically mean that the findings apply to every extract, dosage or Wise Rootz product. Scientific evidence and legally permitted health claims are also two different things. In the European Union, nutrition and health claims for foods and food supplements are subject to specific regulations, and medical claims are not permitted.
Sun Y, Zimmermann D, De Castro CA, Actis-Goretta L. (2019).
Dose-response relationship between cocoa flavanols and human endothelial function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials.
Food & Function, 10(10), 6322–6330.
doi:10.1039/C9FO01747J.
View on PubMed
Lin X, Zhang I, Li A, et al. (2016).
Cocoa Flavanol Intake and Biomarkers for Cardiometabolic Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials.
The Journal of Nutrition, 146(11), 2325–2333.
doi:10.3945/jn.116.237644.
View on PubMed
Sesso HD, Manson JE, Aragaki AK, et al. (2022).
Effect of cocoa flavanol supplementation on the prevention of cardiovascular events: the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS) randomised clinical trial.
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 115(6), 1490–1500.
doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac055.
View on PubMed
Desideri G, Kwik-Uribe C, Grassi D, et al. (2012).
Benefits in cognitive function, blood pressure and insulin resistance following the consumption of cocoa flavanols in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment: the Cocoa, Cognition and Ageing (CoCoA) study.
Hypertension, 60(3), 794–801.
doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.112.193060.
View on PubMed
Socci V, Tempesta D, Desideri G, De Gennaro L, Ferrara M. (2017).
Enhancing Human Cognition with Cocoa Flavonoids.
Frontiers in Nutrition, 4, 19.
doi:10.3389/fnut.2017.00019.
View on PubMed
Fisher NDL, Sorond FA, Hollenberg NK. (2006).
Cocoa flavanols and cerebral perfusion.
Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 47 Suppl 2, pp. S210–S214.
doi:10.1097/00005344-200606001-00017.
View on PubMed
Francis ST, Head K, Morris PG, Macdonald IA. (2006).
The effect of flavanol-rich cocoa on the fMRI response to a cognitive task in healthy young people.
Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, 47 Suppl 2, pp. S215–S220.
doi:10.1097/00005344-200606001-00018.
View on PubMed
Sorrenti V, Ali S, Mancin L, Davinelli S, Paoli A, Scapagnini G. (2020).
The Interplay between Cocoa Polyphenols and the Gut Microbiota: Bioavailability, Prebiotic Effect, and Impact on Human Health.
Nutrients, 12(7), 1908.
doi:10.3390/nu12071908.
View on PubMed
Yoon HS, Kim JR, Park GY, et al. (2016).
Cocoa Flavanol Supplementation Affects Skin Conditions in Women with Photo-Aged Skin: A 24-Week Double-Blind, Randomised, Controlled Trial.
The Journal of Nutrition, 146(1), 46–50.
doi:10.3945/jn.115.217711.
View on PubMed
EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). (2012).
Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim relating to cocoa flavanols and the maintenance of normal endothelium-dependent vasodilation pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006.
EFSA Journal, 10(7), 2809.
doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2809.
See the EFSA website
Shahkhalili Y, Duruz E, Acheson K. (2000).
Digestibility of cocoa butter from chocolate in humans: a comparison with maize oil.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, 120–125.
Denke MA, Grundy SM. (1991).
Effects of fats high in stearic acid on lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in men.
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54(6), 1036–1040.
doi:10.1093/ajcn/54.6.1036.
Polito V, Liknaitzky P. (2022).
The emerging science of microdosing: A systematic review of research on low dose psychedelics (1955–2021) and recommendations for the field.
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 139, 104706.
doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104706.
View on PubMed
Kuypers KPC, Ng L, Erritzoe D, Knudsen GM, Nichols CD, Nichols DE, Pani L, Soula A, Nutt D. (2019).
Microdosing psychedelics: More questions than answers? An overview and suggestions for future research.
Journal of Psychopharmacology, 33(9), 1039–1057.
doi:10.1177/0269881119857204.
View on PubMed
Cavanna F, Muller S, de la Fuente LA, et al. (2022).
Microdosing with psilocybin mushrooms: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
Translational Psychiatry, 12, 307.
View on PubMed
Fadiman J, Korb S. (2019).
Could Microdosing Psychedelics Be Safe and Beneficial? An Initial Exploration.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), 118–122.
doi:10.1080/02791072.2019.1593561.
View on PubMed
Tylš F, Páleníček T, Horáček J. (2014).
Psilocybin — Summary of current knowledge and new perspectives.
European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24(3), 342–356.
doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006.
View on PubMed
Psilocybin in neuropsychiatry: a review of its pharmacology, safety and efficacy. (2022).
A review of the pharmacology of psilocybin and psilocin, including the role of serotonergic receptors and, in particular, the 5-HT2A receptor.
View on PubMed
Haijen ECHM, Hurks PPM, Kuypers KPC. (2022).
Microdosing with psychedelics as a form of self-medication for ADHD symptoms in adults: A prospective naturalistic study.
Neuroscience Applied, 1, 101012.
doi:10.1016/j.nsa.2022.101012.
View on PubMed
Haijen ECHM, Hurks PPM, Kuypers KPC. (2023).
Mindfulness traits and personality characteristics in a microdosing ADHD sample: a naturalistic prospective survey study.
Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1233585.
doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1233585.
View on PubMed
Haijen ECHM, Hurks PPM, Kuypers KPC. (2024).
Effects of psychedelic microdosing versus conventional ADHD medication on emotion regulation, empathy and ADHD symptoms in adults with severe ADHD symptoms: A naturalistic prospective comparative study.
European Psychiatry, 67(1), e18.
doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2024.8.
View on PubMed
Mueller L, Santos de Jesus J, Schmid Y, et al. (2025).
Safety and Efficacy of Repeated Low-Dose LSD for the Treatment of ADHD in Adults: A Randomised Clinical Trial.
JAMA Psychiatry, 82(6), 555–562.
doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.0044.
View on PubMed
Kuypers KPC, Mason NL, Carlier A, Totomanova I, Haijen-Bongers ECHM. (2026).
Psychedelics and women’s mental health: the effects of female sex hormones on the efficacy and tolerability of psychedelics.
Molecular Psychiatry.
doi:10.1038/s41380-026-03801-2.
View on PubMed
Gukasyan N, Narayan SK. (2024).
Menstrual Changes and Reversal of Amenorrhoea Induced by Classic Psychedelics: A Case Series.
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 56(1), 50–55.
doi:10.1080/02791072.2022.2157350.
View on PubMed
Modzelewski S, Stankiewicz A, Waszkiewicz N, Łukasiewicz K. (2025).
Side effects of microdosing lysergic acid diethylamide and psilocybin: A systematic review of potential physiological and psychiatric outcomes.
Neuropharmacology, 271, 110402.
doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2025.110402.
View on PubMed
Yerubandi A, Thomas JE, Bhuiya NMA, et al. (2024).
Acute Adverse Effects of Therapeutic Doses of Psilocybin: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
JAMA Network Open, 7(4), e245960.
doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.5960.
View on PubMed
Sarparast A, Thomas K, Malcolm B, Stauffer CS. (2022).
Drug-drug interactions between psychiatric medicines and MDMA or psilocybin: a systematic review.
Psychopharmacology, 239(6), 1945–1976.
doi:10.1007/s00213-022-06083-y.
View on PubMed
Nayak SM, Gukasyan N, Barrett FS, Erowid E, Erowid F, Griffiths RR. (2021).
Classic Psychedelic Co-administration with Lithium, but Not Lamotrigine, is Associated with Seizures: An Analysis of Online Psychedelic Experience Reports.
Pharmacopsychiatry, 54(5), 240–245.
doi:10.1055/a-1524-2794.
View on PubMed
Mori K, Inatomi S, Ouchi K, Azumi Y, Tuchida T. (2009).
The effects of the Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) on mild cognitive impairment: a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.
Phytotherapy Research, 23(3), 367–372.
doi:10.1002/ptr.2634.
Saitsu Y, et al. (2019).
Improvement of cognitive functions by oral intake of Hericium erinaceus.
Biomedical Research, 40(4), 125–131.
Dewi L, Khemtong C. (2025).
Ergogenic Aid by Cordyceps: Does It Work?
Current Nutrition Reports, 14(1), 97.
doi:10.1007/s13668-025-00690-9.
The Nutritional Significance of Ganoderma lucidum on Human Health: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials. (2025).
Zhou X, Cao Q, Orfila C, Zhao J, Zhang L. (2021).
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Astaxanthin on Human Skin Ageing.
Nutrients, 13(9), 2917.
doi:10.3390/nu13092917.
View on PubMed
Kongkeaw C, Dilokthornsakul P, Thanarangsarit P, Limpeanchob N, Scholfield CN. (2014).
Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on cognitive effects of Bacopa monnieri extract.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 151(1), 528–535.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.008.
View on PubMed
Ghazizadeh J, Sadigh-Eteghad S, Marx W, et al. (2021).
The effects of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) on depression and anxiety in clinical trials: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Phytotherapy Research, 35(12), 6690–6705.
doi:10.1002/ptr.7252.
View on PubMed
Hewlings SJ, Kalman DS. (2017).
Curcumin: A Review of Its Effects on Human Health.
Foods, 6(10), 92.
doi:10.3390/foods6100092.
View on PubMed
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
European Union herbal monograph on Harpagophytum procumbens DC. and/or Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne., radix.
EMA/HMPC/627057/2015.
Bekijk bij EMA
Hort J, Duning T, Hoerr R. (2023).
Ginkgo biloba Extract EGb 761 in the Treatment of Patients with Mild Neurocognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review.
Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 19, 647–660.
doi:10.2147/NDT.S401905.
View on PubMed
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
European Union herbal monograph on Ginkgo biloba L., folium.
Bekijk bij EMA
Puttarak P, Dilokthornsakul P, Saokaew S, et al. (2017).
Effects of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. on cognitive function and mood related outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.
Scientific Reports, 7, 10646.
doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09823-9.
View on PubMed
Mancini E, Beglinger C, Drewe J, Zanchi D, Lang UE, Borgwardt S. (2017).
Green tea effects on cognition, mood and human brain function: A systematic review.
Phytomedicine, 34, 26–37.
doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2017.07.008.
View on PubMed
Hack B, Penna EM, Talik T, Chandrashekhar R, Millard-Stafford M. (2023).
Effect of Guarana (Paullinia cupana) on Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.
Nutrients, 15(2), 434.
doi:10.3390/nu15020434.
View on PubMed
Krieger DR, Kalman DS, Feldman S, et al. (2016).
The Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Nervous System Effects of Two Natural Sources of Caffeine in Healthy Adult Males.
Clinical and Translational Science, 9(5), 246–251.
doi:10.1111/cts.12403.
View on PubMed
Wise G, Negrin A. (2020).
A critical review of the composition and history of safe use of guayusa: a stimulant and antioxidant novel food.
Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 60(14), 2393–2404.
doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1643286.
View on PubMed
Sarmadi B, Musazadeh V, Dehghan P, Karimi E. (2023).
The effect of cinnamon consumption on lipid profile, oxidative stress, and inflammation biomarkers in adults: An umbrella meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 33(10), 1821–1835.
doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2023.03.010.
View on PubMed
Mucuna pruriens Treatment for Parkinson Disease: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials. (2025).
Systematische review van klinisch onderzoek naar Mucuna pruriens.
View on PubMed
Song Q, Zhou X, Xu K, et al. (2023).
The Safety and Antiaging Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide in Human Clinical Trials: an Update.
Advances in Nutrition, 14(6), 1416–1435.
doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.08.008.
View on PubMed
Geng J, Dong J, Ni H, et al. (2010).
Ginseng for cognition.
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 12, CD007769.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007769.pub2.
View on PubMed
Lim XY, Chan JSW, Japri N, Lee JC, Tan TYC. (2021).
Carica papaya L. Leaf: A Systematic Scoping Review on Biological Safety and Herb-Drug Interactions.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021, 5511221.
doi:10.1155/2021/5511221.
View on PubMed
Janda K, Wojtkowska K, Jakubczyk K, Antoniewicz J, Skonieczna-Żydecka K. (2020).
Passiflora incarnata in Neuropsychiatric Disorders—A Systematic Review.
Nutrients, 12(12), 3894.
doi:10.3390/nu12123894.
View on PubMed
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
European Union herbal monograph on Passiflora incarnata L., herba.
Bekijk bij EMA
Berman AY, et al. (2024).
Resveratrol for the Management of Human Health: How Far Have We Come? A Systematic Review of Resveratrol Clinical Trials to Highlight Gaps and Opportunities.
Systematic review of human clinical studies on resveratrol.
View on PubMed
Ishaque S, Shamseer L, Bukutu C, Vohra S. (2012).
Rhodiola rosea for physical and mental fatigue: a systematic review.
BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 12, 70.
doi:10.1186/1472-6882-12-70.
View on PubMed
Mahmoudi R, Mohammadi-Sartang M, Servatyari K, Rafieipour N. (2026).
Effect of saffron on depression, anxiety and mood disorder: a GRADE assessed systematic review and meta-analysis of 34 randomized controlled trials.
Nutritional Neuroscience, 29(7), 816–837.
doi:10.1080/1028415X.2025.2602153.
View on PubMed
Mohammadi MM, Karimi Z. (2026).
Effect of saffron on premenstrual syndrome and dysmenorrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Korean Journal of Family Medicine, 47(1), 69–80.
doi:10.4082/kjfm.24.0259.
View on PubMed
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
European Union herbal monograph on Valeriana officinalis L., radix.
Bekijk bij EMA
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
European Union herbal monograph on Salix [various species including S. purpurea L., S. daphnoides Vill., S. fragilis L.], cortex.
EMA/HMPC/80630/2016.
Bekijk bij EMA
Onderzoek naar botanicals is niet automatisch toepasbaar op ieder product dat dezelfde plant bevat. De samenstelling van een botanisch extract wordt onder andere beïnvloed door de gebruikte plantensoort, het plantdeel, de extractiemethode, het extractiemiddel, de extractverhouding en eventuele standaardisatie op specifieke inhoudsstoffen.
Daarom kijken we bij het beoordelen van wetenschappelijke literatuur niet alleen naar de naam van een plant, maar ook naar de specifieke bereiding die in het onderzoek is gebruikt.
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
Guideline on quality of herbal medicinal products/traditional herbal medicinal products.
Europese richtlijn voor onder andere de identificatie, productie, karakterisering en kwaliteitscontrole van plantaardige stoffen en bereidingen.
European Medicines Agency (EMA).
Guideline on declaration of herbal substances and herbal preparations in herbal medicinal products/traditional herbal medicinal products.
Europese richtlijn voor de beschrijving en declaratie van plantaardige stoffen en preparaten, waaronder extracten.
European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare (EDQM).
European Pharmacopoeia.
The European Pharmacopoeia contains official quality standards and monographs for, among other things, herbal raw materials, extracts and other botanical preparations.
Bekijk de European Pharmacopoeia bij EDQM
European Medicines Agency (EMA) — Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC).
European Union herbal monographs.
Scientific monographs that assess, for each botanical, aspects such as botanical identity, plant parts used, preparations and the available scientific evidence.
View Herbal Medicines at the EMA
Not every scientific publication carries the same weight of evidence. At Wise Rootz, we therefore look not only at whether research on an ingredient exists, but also at the type of research, the quality of the study and the extent to which the findings are relevant to the information we share.
Where possible, we prioritise:
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses
Studies in which the results of multiple relevant studies are evaluated together.
Randomised controlled trials (RCTs)
Human studies in which an intervention is compared under controlled conditions with a control or placebo group.
Other human research
Such as observational, prospective and pharmacokinetic studies.
Preclinical and mechanistic research
Laboratory and animal studies that can contribute to understanding biological mechanisms, but whose findings cannot automatically be extrapolated to humans.
The form studied is also important. Findings from research on a specific substance, plant or standardised extract cannot automatically be applied to every product containing that ingredient.
We therefore consider factors such as the botanical species, plant part, extract type, standardisation, dosage and study duration.
Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving. New studies may strengthen, refine or change existing insights. We therefore review and update our sources and educational content periodically when there is reason to do so.
This source library is intended as a transparent overview of the scientific and official sources behind our educational content. It does not constitute medical advice, and the inclusion of research on an ingredient does not mean that a Wise Rootz product is intended to prevent, treat or cure any disease.
Last content review: August 2026.
